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English Handout: Sentence Construction + Entrance Exam + Explanation with Exam Techniques: By Million Abebe (MA in English/in TEFL and B. Ed. Degree in Pedagogy): 2023



Overview
This handout deals with sentence construction but it starts with covering 'phrases' and 'clause' because these are among the basic background concepts! The handout has 3 sections: 
  • Section-1. Phrases: 5 Types of Phrases
  • Section-2. Clauses: 2 Types of Clauses
  • Section-3. Sentence 
    • Elements of Sentence: 5
    • Types of Sentence:
      • Based on structures:
      • Based on functions 
This handout is followed by: 
  • Grade 12 Entrance Exam Questions (1995 upto now)
  • With Detail Explanations + 
  • Exam Techniques for 'Word Order Questions' 
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Section-1. Phrases
Phrase is a word/group of words that doesn't have subject and verb. There are five common types of phrases: The followings are the most common types of phrase.
A. Noun phrase 
Noun phrase is a noun/ noun with other words and pronoun.
  • Noun/pronoun: phrase, table, they, he...
  • Determiner* + noun: the man, a man, that man, some people.. .
  • Adjective + noun: big question, important topic.. . adjective phrase ...
  • Determiner + adjective + noun: a big question, an interesting topic
Notice-1: *Determiners include:
  • Articles: a, an, the
  • *Demonstrative pronouns (see notice-2, below): this, that, these, those
  • *Possessive adjective (see notice-3, below): my, your, his, her, our, their, its
  • Quantifiers: all, any, each, every, some, no...
  • Numerals (see notice-4, below):
    • Cardinal numbers: one, two, three...
    • Ordinal numbers: first, second, third...
  • Interrogative pronouns/ words: how, which, what, whose...
Notice-2: This vs that vs these vs those
  • 'This' (for near) and 'that' (for far) are used for singular countable nouns (this man, that man...) and all uncountable nouns (this/that water, this/that oil, this/that milk ...).
  • 'These' (for near) and 'those' (for far) are used for  countable plural nouns (these men, those men...).
Notice-3: Possessive Adjectives vs Possessive Pronouns 
  • Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns are used to show ownership/ possession.
    • Possessive adjectives are used before nouns: my book, her book... 
    • Possessive pronouns (mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs) are used after noun: this book is mine/hers
Notice-4: Numbers... 
  • If cardinal and ordinal numbers are given together, ordinal number comes first: ordinal number + cardinal number 
  • If 'the' and 'numbers' come together, article 'the' comes first: the + number (cardinal/ ordinal) 
  • Examples:
    • The first two chapters talk about Ethiopian economy.
    • The first question is very easy.
Noun phrases are mainly used as:
  • subject of a sentence 
  • object of a sentence
  • complement of a sentence
Examples: (Look the bolded words.)
  • Some of the questions are wrong questions. (subject and complement respectively) 
  • Most students have already finished their tests. (subject and object respectively)
  • Noun phrases are mainly used as subject /object/complement of a sentence. (subject and complement respectively)
B. Verb Phrase 
Verb phrase is formed from a verb and/or words related with verbs. These include:
  • Main verb (ordinary): speak, write, help ...
  • Auxiliary verbs: is, was, can, may, do, does, have...
  • Main verb + auxiliary verbs: is spoken, is speaking, has spoken, can speak, doesn't...
Examples: (Look the bolded words.)
  • Hana lives in Adama. (main verb) 
  • She may come tonight. (auxiliary verb 'modal' + main verb)
  • Hana doesn't live in Adama. (auxiliary verb 'to do' + main verb)
  • Hana has lived in Adama for 10 years. (auxiliary verb 'to have' + main verb)
C. Prepositional Phrase
  • Prepositional phrase is formed from preposition and noun/noun phrase.
  • a preposition + noun phrase: on table, infront of the house...
D. Adjective Phrase
  • Adjective phrase is formed from an adjective and sometimes, with an adverb of degree (very): strong, very strong, interesting/interested...
E. Adverb Phrase
  • Adverb phrase is formed from an adverb, sometimes with an adverb of degree (almost): carefully, very carefully, successfully...
Section-2. Clauses
A clause is a group of words/related words that has a subject and a verb. 
There are two common types of clauses:
  • Independent clause (main clause) stands on its own as a sentence and give a complete message/thought.
    • Mostly, it is ended with semi-colon/coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, yet, for) or comma + coordinate conjunctions
    • It is used with dependent clause. If it is used alone, it becomes sentence.
    • Two independent clauses could be used together.
  • Dependent clause (subordinate clause) cannot stand on its own as a sentence because it does not give complete message/thought. 
    • Mostly (not always), dependent clauses begin with a subordinating conjunctions (since, as, although, if, after, before, when, while....). 
    • It is used with independent clause as it can't give complete message/thought if it is used alone. 
    • If it comes at the beginning of a sentence, it is separated (from the main clause) by comma. 
    • But if it comes at the end a sentence (after the main clause), no need of using comma.
Examples: 
  • In the next examples, the underlined group of words are dependent clause; the bolded group of words are independent clause. 
    • Independent clause + independent clause
  • Although she knows many people in the town, no one has come to help her. 
    • Dependent clause + independent clause 
  • No one has come to help her although she knows many people in the town.
    • Independent clause + dependent clause
  • In the next examples, the underlined group of words are dependent clause; the bolded group of words are independent clause. 
    • Independent clause + independent clause
  • If we know the secret, we will tell you about it. 
    • Dependent clause + independent clause 
  • We will tell you about it if we know the secret. 
    • Independent clause + dependent clause 
Section-3. Sentence
Sentence is a word or group of words that has at least subject and verb, and also gives full meaning. 
A. Five Elements of Sentence 
1. Subject in Sentence 
  • Subject is the doer of an action or the thing we are talking about, in a given sentence.
  • The subject of a sentence could be a noun/ pronoun or a phrase. 
Examples:
  • Tinbite is one of our top students.
  • She has scored 601 on Entrance Exam.
  • Verb is a word/group of words that show the action performed by the subject.
  • Some students have already finished their test. 
  • The first question that the whole students in the class have asked was right. (All the underlined words are the subject, the rest are verb & adjective respectively.) 
2. Verb in Sentence 
  • Verb is a word/group of words that show the action performed by the subject or the condition or state of being of the subject.
  • Verb is very essential element of sentence; without a sentence, we can't construct a sentence!
Examples: Look the above five examples; all the bolded words (such as is, has scored, have finished and have asked was) verbs in each of the above sentences.
3. Complement in Sentence 
  • Complement is a word/group of words that tells about the given subject/ object.
  • Complement and object are two different things (Confusing Areas', below).
  • There are two kinds of complements: 'subject complement' and 'object complement' (see under 'Confusing Areas', below).
  • Look the above five examples (under subject):
    • In example-1, 'one of our top students' is complement.
    • In example-3, 'a word/group of words that show the action performed by the subject' is complement.
    • In example-5, 'right' is complement.
4. Object in Sentence 
  • Object of a sentence is a person or a thing upon which an action is done or a receiver of an action performed by a subject of a sentence.
  • Sometimes, we could have 'direct object' and 'indirect object' within a single sentence... (see under 'Confusing Areas', below).
  • Look the above five examples (under subject):
    • In example-2, '601 on Entrance Exam' is object.
    • In example-4, 'their test' is object.
5. Adverbial in Sentence 
  • Adverbial is a word/ group of words that tells about place, time, manner.. . of an action. 
  • It includes prepositional phrases, adverb phrases and noun phrases. 
  • The adverbial is the most moblile element of the sentence. That means it can come anywhere in the sentence (beginning, middle or ending).
  • It doesn't have fixed positions like subject, verb, object and complement ...
B. Confusing Areas: 
In the above, under section-3, specifically, under A, '5 Elements of Sentence' have been discussed. Here, under 'B', some confusing areas are briefly discussed!
1. Complement, Object vs Adverbial
Some students are confused with these 3 elements (of sentence) but they are completely different; one can't replace the other.
  • Complement tells us something about a subject or an object of a sentence. 
  • Object is the receiver (a person or a thing upon which an action is done) of an action.
  • Adverbial tells us about place, time, manner, frequency ... in a sentence. 
Note: Look the next examples carefully!
Examples:
  • Biden is our current Mathematics teacher in this school. 
    • Complement= 'our current Mathematics teacher'
    • Adverbial=  'in this school'
    • Object= NO!
  • Biden is currently teaching Mathematics in this school.
    • Object= Mathematics 
    • Adverbial=  'in this school'
    • Complement= NO!
  • We live here. (Adverbial= 'here', it tells place.)
  • We are happy. (Complement= 'happy', it tells about the subject) 
  • We have bought the book. (Object= 'the book', it is the receiver of action)
  • The book is under the table. (Adverbial= 'under the table', it tells place.)
2. Direct Object vs Indirect Object 
The other confusing area in sentence construction is the issues about 'direct object' and 'indirect object'. 
  • Sometimes, two objects ('direct object' and 'indirect object') could be used in a given sentence (a single sentence). 
  • Don't think that 'direct object' is the object that immediately/directly comes after a verb; in sentence.
  • Indirect object: The object that immediately/ directly comes after a verb is 'indirect object'. 
  • Direct object: 'Direct object' comes after 'indirect object'.
Note: Look the next examples carefully.
Examples:
  • She has sent me new book. ('Me' is indirect object; 'new book' is direct object.)
  • We have given our students their first final exam. ('Our students' is indirect object; 'their first final exam' is direct object.)
  • Our teacher asked us a lot of questions about sentence last week. ('Us' is indirect object; ' a lot of questions' is direct object.)
Additional Information 
An indirect object is a noun, pronoun or noun phrase that receives what is done or given. In other words, an indirect object is one that the action is directed to or performed for. 
  • To identify an indirect object, you can ask the question ‘for whom’ and ‘to whom’.
  • When there is an indirect object in a sentence, it is mostly placed after the verb and before the direct object.
  • We could re-write/rephrase these types of sentences (sentence with 'indirect object' and 'direct object') by putting the 'direct object' first using 'to'/'for'! But there are limited verbs that could be used in this way. 
    • Verbs that could be re-written using 'to' are 'bring, send, owe, show, tell, give, offer, promise, teach, write...'.
    • Verbs that could be re-written using 'for' are 'buy, find, get, make, order, save...'.
Note: Look the next pair of sentences; both sentences are the same. 
Examples:
  • She has sent me new book. = She has sent new book to me. 
  • We have given our students their first final exam. = We have given their first final exam to our students. 
  • My boyfriend bought me a beautiful ring. = My boyfriend bought a beautiful ring for me. 
  • Our teacher asked us a lot of questions about sentence last week. (This sentence can't be re-written using 'for'/'to'; why?)
Exceptional Point: Adjunct
Adjunct is a word/ group of words/clause that gives additional information: omitting them doesn't affect the meaning of the given sentence.

C. Types of Sentences
Brief Overview
In previous discussions (under section-3: sentence), five elements of sentence (A) and some confusing areas (B) have been discussed.
Next, under 'Types of Sentences' (C), different types of sentences are presented. Sentences are grouped into different types based on their structures and also their functions. 
1. Types of Sentences: Based on Structures 

Sentence can be grouped into four based on their structure, namely, simple, compound, complex and compound complex. 
  • Simple Sentences
    • A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. 
    • It must have a single subject, a single verb and a single object/complement; it can also have adverbial (a single or more).
    • It must contain only one independent clause.
  • Examples
    • Obama speaks 3 languages.
    • Messi is football player in Europe.
    • My book has been taken by my boyfriend.
  • Compound Sentences
    • A compound sentence is type of sentence that has at least two independent clauses. 
    • The two clauses could be joined either by semi-colon/coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for) with or without comma.
  • Examples:
    • We have asked him more than 10 times but he refused to respond to our question.
    • Hawi went to Johnson's office and she met him there last week.
    • A compound sentence is formed from two independent clauses; these clauses could be written separately as two independent sentences.
  • Complex Sentences
    • A complex sentence is a sentence that has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. 
    • The sentence (complex sentence) could begin either by independent clause or dependent clause; it doesn't matter.
    • If it (complex sentence) begins with dependent clause, the dependent clause must be separated by comma from the independent clause.
    • If it (complex sentence) begins with independent clause, no need of using comma.
  • Examples:
    • As soon as Bilise saw her boyfriend, she run to hug and kiss him.
    • Bilise run to hug and kiss her boyfriend as soon as she saw him.
    • The dependent clause must be separated by comma from the independent clause complex sentence begins with dependent clause.
    • If it (complex sentence) begins with independent clause, no need of using comma.
  • Compound-complex Sentence 
    • A compound-complex sentence is type of sentence that has at least two independent clauses and also at least one dependent clause.
  • Examples: 
    • When there is an indirect object in a sentence, it is mostly placed after the verb and before the direct object; it is a noun or pronoun that is a secondary object.
    • Normally, when we construct negative sentence with NOT, we have to have auxiliary verbs; unless we are talking something familiar. 
    • Although, sometimes, some writers omit auxiliary verbs deliberately, as a rule, we cannot make negative sentence that contains NOT without using auxiliary verbs.
2. Types of Sentence: Based on Functions 
Based on their functions, sentences are also grouped into four: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences. 
  • Declarative /Statement: expresses fact/opinion 
    • It is used to express or declare fact or opinion which could be true /false. 
    • It could be positive or negative; it is ended with full stop. It is the most common sentence in writing and speaking. 
Examples:
  • The sentence that you are reading is declarative sentence. (positive or affirmative)
  • The sentence that you are reading is not question sentence.
Attention Please!
  • Declarative sentence can be divided into:
    • Affirmative (positive): SVO 
    • Negative: Subject+auxiliary verb + not + main verb
Normally, when we construct negative sentence with NOT, we have to have auxiliary verbs unless we are talking something familiar. Although sometimes, some writers omit auxiliary verbs deliberately, as a rule we cannot make negative sentence that contains NOT without using auxiliary verbs. 
  • Examples:
    • She cannot tell me about you. 
    • We are not students. 
    • We not students. (WRONG)
  • Interrogative/ question: 
    • AV +S+MV / Wh-word+ S+MV...?
    • It is a type of sentence which is used to ask for information. Mostly it begins with Wh-words or auxiliary verbs and ended with question mark. 
  • Examples:
    • Can you tell me your name? 
    • Where are you going now?
    • How can I get the post office?
Note: If there is indirect question, it begins with subject and ended with full stop.
  • S+V+ Wh-word + S+ V
  • Examples:
    • I want to know how you solved that question.
    • He asked me where I live. 
  • Imperative /command sentence 
    • Imperative /command sentence is used to express instruction or what somebody should do or should not do. 
    • It is constructed in two ways. By beginning with verb1 and followed by noun phrase (V+NP). 
    • In this case, the subject ‘you’ is understood /hidden. But, it can also begin with subject and followed by obligatory modal verbs (should, have to, must...) 
  • Examples:
    • Stop talking!
    • Leave the class!
    • You have to finish on time.
    • They should come with their parent. 
Note: Unless we are expressing strong idea that we want to give emphasis (more attention), mostly imperative sentence ends with full stop (.), NOT exclamation (!). 
  • Exclamatory Sentence:
    • It is used to express an idea that shows high degree of emotion, or strong feelings (anger, happiness, amazement, love...).
    • It is closed with exclamation mark (!).
Examples:
  • Wow! How brilliant man is this guy!
  • Oh! You did it, bravo! 
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